Lab

1)Fresh water can hold more oxygen than salt water
2)Cool water can hold more dissolved oxygen than warm water, which is why the
fish died in the hot aquarium.
3)A clear pond will hold more oxygen than a pond with heavy alga mat. Despite photosynthesis,
the decay of so much organic matter will result in the depletion of oxygen.

Photosynthesis equation
6CO₂ + 6H₂O  C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

Evolution

Darwin's evolution theory vs Lamarck's

Darwin believed that organisms all adapted to their environment, and that even those of the same specie were all different. He thought that those variations between species that helped them adapt to their environment was what helped them survive and reproduce, then their offspring will reproduce as well. As for the weak, they will eventually die off. ex: Elephants used to have short trunks, while others had longer trunks which helped them reach food easier. Eventually those with shorted trunks died off and only those with longer trunks reproduced. Natural selection

Lamarck believed that if an organism changes during life in order to adapt to its environment, its changes are passed on to its offspring. He believed change was made by want or need. He also believed that organs not being used will eventually vanish, for example the human appendix.  ex: Elephants used to all have short trunks and when there was no food or water that they could reach, they stretched their trunk to reach it; therefore their offspring had longer trunk. Inheritance 

They both however believed that evolution consisted of organisms adapting to their environment by changing.

*We believe Darwin's theory. Why? Well, because a body builder won't produce a baby that is born a body builder right away. The offspring will have to work to be fit and built.

Natural selection

"survival of the fittest"

Individuals even within the same specie are different. Organisms may produce more offspring than their environment can support which leads to competing for resources. Individuals that cope with the challenges presented by their environment leave more offspring than those less suited. 

To sum it all up it was basically Darwin's idea that only the strong will survive and reproduce, while the weak will eventually die off. 

ex #1: Variation in traits may lead to green beetles and brown beetles on a tree. The green beetles are more visible therefore the birds will spot them first and eat them. The brown ones are not so easily seen or eaten, therefore they will reproduce and eventually there will only be brown beetles. 

ex #2: Fish lay thousands or millions of eggs. Within the population of eggs, there will be variations. Some may differ in color, fin and tail size, and speed. An egg that grows to be a fast fish with a skin color that allows it to blend in with its environment is more likely to survive and not be eaten than a slow fish with more obvious coloring. Eventually the more suited fish will reproduce and the weak ones will die off, causing a change in the specie.

Evidence of evolution

Fossils: for example, intermediate forms. They reveal gradual modification of species over time.

Geographic distribution of species: for example, similar animals in different locations. They reveal different lines of evolutionary descent 

Homologous body structures: for example, different mature forms develop from same embryonic tissue. They reveal species are descended from common ancestors.

Similarities in early development: for example, the order and pattern of development in vertebrate embryos. They reveal vertebrates share a common ancestry.

Body systems

Circulatory: 

Structure: Consists of the heart, arteries(carry blood away from the heart), veins(carry blood to the heart), capillaries(where nutrient and gas exchange occurs with tissue), and blood.

Function: Transports blood to every part of the body. The blood contains all the necessary gases,nutrients,and waste products which are all carried to the necessary parts of the body.

Digestive: 
Structure: Begins with the mouth, then esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and ends with the rectum. The liver processes bile(digestive enzyme) and the gall bladder stores it. 
Function: Digests food and provides vital nutrients to the body, also helps to regulate the metabolism as well as eliminates waste.




Nervous: 
Structure: Broken down into 2 parts, the central nervous system(Brain and spinal cord, acts as the body's control center and coordinates body's activities)  and the peripheral nervous system(Carry messages to and from the central nervous system to the entire body)
Function: Controls all body activities




Endocrine: 
Structure: Consists of network of glands that include the pituitary, thyroid, thymus, pancreas, testes, ovaries, adrenal, and parathyroid glands.
Function: Contains glands that secrete hormones that are essential in the regulation of digestion, metabolism, and homeostasis




Reproductive:
Structure: Male reproductive system(Testis, tube that transports sperm called the vas deferens, urethra,and penis). The female reproductive system(ovaries, uterus, and vagina)
Function: Perpetuate the species through reproduction




Integumentary: 
Structure: Composed of two parts, the epidermis and the dermis. The epidermis is the outer thinner portion of the skin. The dermis is the inner thicker portion of the skin. It also contains the melanin(pigment in the skin), keratin(dead, waterproofing cells), and the hair. 
Function: Maintains equilibrium within the body, it regulates body temperature, and it serves as a protective layer to the body's underlying tissues.




Skeletal
Structure: Composed of two parts, the axial skeleton(Skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum) and the appendicular skeleton(bones of the arms and legs, shoulder, and pelvic bones).
Function: Provides framework for the body's tissue and protects the upper organs. Muscles are anchored to the bones to allow for movement. Bones also produce blood cells, and store vital minerals. 




Respiratory
Structure: Composed of two parts, the trachea(The passageway of air from the mouth or nasal cavity; it divides into 2 bronchi
Function: Provide the body with oxygen and to dispel carbon dioxide from the body.




Muscular
Structure: There are three types of muscles: smooth(found in internal organs and blood vessels), cardiac(found in the heart), and skeletal(attached to the bones).
Function: Smooth muscle allow for the contraction of organs and blood vessels. Cardiac muscle is responsible for the pumping of the heart, while the skeletal muscles allow movement. 




Excretory/Urinary
Structure: Kidneys(filter blood), uterus(tubes that lead from kidneys to urinary bladder), the urinary bladder(stores urine), and the urethra(tubes that lead from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body).
Function: Filter blood and remove major waste products such as ammonia and urea. Also regulates pH(acidity level) of the blood.




Immune/lymphatic
Structure: Lymph nodes and lymph vessels that are scattered throughout the body and help filter out antigens(Disease causing microorganisms). The tonsils, thymus gland, spleen, and bone marrow are also involved in the immune system.
Function: Protect the body from infections and antigens.

Life

Taxonomy 

There are 3 domains of life, and there are 6 kingdoms.

The 3 domains are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryota 

Bacteria: The organisms in this domain do not have a membrane bound nucleus, and are as you would have guessed, bacteria. Under this domain there is one kingdom, the Eubacteria kingdom. Organisms under this domain and kingdom are prokaryotic,single celled, autotrophic/or heterotrophic, and some are motile while others aren't. ex:blue-green algae 

Archaea: The organisms on this domain also, do not have a membrane bound nucleus which makes them have a prokaryotic cell type. The kingdom under this domain is Achaeabacteria ; they are single celled, and they get energy by breaking down chemicals in their environment, some are motile while others aren't; most reproduce by binary fission. ex:bacteria that tend to survive in extreme environments

Eukaryota: Organisms in this domain have a membrane bound nucleus, therefore are eukaryotic. 

In the kingdom Protista there are some motile, some multi-cellular/or single-cellular, autotrophic/or heterotrophic organisms. ex: Ameba and algae 

In the Fungi kingdom there are eukaryotic, multi-cellular, sessile(not moveable) organisms that feed on dead or decaying organisms or heterotrophic. ex: yeast,molds & mildews

In the kingdom Plantae there are eukaryotic, multi-cellular, sessile organisms that are autotrophic and feed off of sunlight to produce their own food. ex: moss, ferns, bushes, trees

In the kingdom Animalia there are eukaryotic, multi-cellular, motile, heterotrophic organisms. ex:insects, tigers, crabs, birds, and you!

Plant divisions

Bryophytes: Nonvascular, multi-cellular, land plants that do not have roots, stems and leaves. They absorb water with their root-like rhizoids that anchor the plant. Since they are small they must pass all material from cell to cell by diffusion. ex: mosses and liverworts
Tracheophytes: Seedless, vascular plants include club mosses(lycophyta), horsetails(sphenophytes), and ferns(pteridophytes)
Gymnosperms: Produce seeds in cones or cone-like structure and some are adapted to cold climate such as conifers. This division also includes cycads and ginkos
Angiosperms: Aka the "flowering plant"; Most temperate angiosperms drop their leafs annually during fall and winter then become dormant. Many tropical angiosperms are evergreen and lose few leaves. ex:herbs,shrubs, sunflowers

Phloem: Transports food Made of living cells with perforated end-plates to allow stuff to flow through, transport food in both directions. Carry sugar,fats,proteins,etc. to growing regions and to storage organs in the roots. 

Xylem: Takes water up Made of dead cells joined end to end with no end walls between them. They carry water and minerals from the roots up to the leaves in the transpiration stream. 

Reproduction

Alleles and Genes

An allele is different from a gene because alleles occur in pairs and they can be recessive or dominant; genes cannot. Genes are the different parts of the DNA that decide what genetic traits a person is going to have. Alleles are the different sequence on the DNA. 

Alleles make up a gene

Autosomes vs. sex chromosomes

Autosomes that are not sex chromosomes or involved in sex determination, while sex chromosomes ARE involved in   

sex determination and  sex organ development.

Viruses,prions and viroids/ Metabolic vs. Anabolic reactions

Catabolic vs. Anabolic reactions

Catabolic: (Destructive metabolism; breaks down complex substances into simpler ones; produces energy)
Anabolic: (Creates more complex molecules from simple molecules and consumes energy)
Both: Metabolic processes

Cells

Prokaryotic Cell

1) No nuclear membrane 

2) No membrane bound organelles

3) Found in Archabacteria and Eubacteria kingdoms

Ex: E.Coli & Salmonella 

Eukaryotic Cell

1) Definite membrane bound nucleus

2) Have membrane bound organelles

3) Found in Animals,Plants, fungi, and protista kingdoms

Ex: Tigers & You!

 Diffusion & Osmosis 

Facilitated diffusion: The diffusion of substances across a membrane that is "facilitated" because a transport protein in the membrane enhances the transport of the substance across the membrane.

Active transport: Transport that uses Energy(ATP) and the materials flow against the concentration gradient.

Passive & active transport comparison

 (further explained)

*Examples of each in the video

Passive does not expend metabolic energy, the materials go down the concentration gradient, and try to reach equilibrium. Active transport does use metabolic energy and the materials flow against the concentration gradient and the materials go to one side of the membrane.

Transport moves materials across the plasma membrane , some of those materials are essential for cells to keep functioning, cells are essential for life, therefore so is transport.

 

Interphase: Period of cell growth when the cell synthesizes new molecules and organelles. Consists of three "prepping" stages: G1, S, G2. Also consists of prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.


Mitosis: Only happens in eukaryote cells; Divides the chromosomes in a cell nucleus.

Mitosis: Occurs in eukaryote cells, forms 4 daughter cells, forms spindle fibers to divide

Binary fission: Occurs in prokaryote cells, forms 2 daughter cells, undergoes simple division of nucleus and cell membrane

Similar: They are both a process that organisms use to reproduce cells

Mitosis: Produces 2 cells, make every other cell except sex cells, asexual,

Meiosis: Produces 4 cells, only makes sex cells, sexual, 

Both: Are a form of cell division

DNA/RNA/etc.

Compare and contrast of DNA & RNA

DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid that contains 5 carbon sugar deoxyribose . 

RNA: Ribonucleic acid that contains 5 carbon sugar ribose

DNA: Double stranded

RNA: Single stranded

DNA: (A)adenine, (T)thymine, (C)cytosine, (G)guanine

RNA:  Contains all of the above except Thymine, which is replaced by (U)uracil 

Both: Composed of Nucleotides that are linked by chemical bonds between sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next 

RNA: Has several types, mRNA, tRNA, rRNA

DNA: Can undergo self-replication, RNA cannot